Cyber Ethiopia

This on-going series of articles presents excerpts from historically interesting accounts of Ethiopian markets, and merchants, as seen over the centuries. mainly by foreign observers. Our knowledge of early nineteenth century Ethiopian commerce is based, very largely, on the writings of a host of foreign travellers. Muslim and Christian Merchants Ethiopian trade in the first part of the nineteenth century, which, as in the past, was largely dominated by Muslim merchants, tended to be despised by the majority of the Christian population. The latter had little inclination to travel, except perhaps on campaign or pilgrimage.  The prevailing attitude of Ethiopian Christians was summed up by Ras Walda Sellase, the then ruler of Tegre, who told the British traveller Henry Salt in 1811 that his co-religionaries were

"little acquainted with commercial transactions", as they dedicated their lives "solely to war and agriculture". Ethiopian camels as depicted by Henry Salt in the early nineteenth century Walter Plowden, a British consul at the time of Emperor Tewodros, reported that merchants, like trade, tended to be "looked on with contempt by the military". Traders were, however, "patronized by the chiefs", whom they "conciliated", he says, by "rare presents," in addition to their taxes. Despite the predominance of Muslim merchants there were nonetheless also a few wealthy Christian traders. The most prominent of the latter, in the early nineteenth century, were Tasfa Haylu and Walda Sellase, both of Gondar, and Kidana Maryam and Hagos Daras of Adwa, and Kasa and Wande of Qorata, an important commercial centre by Lake Tana. Caravans Caravans played a major role in Ethiopian long-distance trade. They were largely based on personal supervision by the merchants, or by their agents, who accompanied their goods, and remained with them at the markets where the latter were offered for sale. The itinerant trader or agent was thus able to choose the articles in greatest demand, buy in the cheapest market, defend his goods if in danger from robbers, come to the terms with extortionate customs officials, and sell most advantageously from the point of view of price, place and time. Caravans operated, as the early nineteenth century French travellers P.V. Ferret and J.G. Galinier explain, on a well-established pattern. The principal merchant about to make a journey would thus announce in advance the day of departure. Smaller traders, couriers, and persons with business in the area to be visited would then prepare to join the caravan, after which they would erect their tents beside that of the most important merchant, who in this way became the popularly chosen caravan leader. He it was who was responsible for obtaining armed escorts and guides, choosing camp sites on the journey, and settling disputes, as well as paying customs taxes, and dividing their burden among all the members of the caravan. Each individual merchant was, however, responsible for his own transport, and traded as he thought best. In a typical caravan of the 1830's described by the German traveller, Edouard Ruppell, the four richest merchants rode on mules, while the rest walked, more humbly, on foot. Everyone was armed, with either a sword, or a spear and shield, but eight men had rifles. Merchandise, which was generally kept in skin sacks, was carried on donkeys, horses and camels, or on the shoulders of human porters, according to the wealth of the traders and the nature of the country to be traversed. If the land was mountainous, rich traders would load their goods on mules whose strength and sobriety rendered them invaluable for this work. Neither man nor beast could equal their ability in climbing rocky heights or precipitous cliffs. These sturdy animals were moreover far from expensive, for a good beast capable of carrying 45 kilos could be obtained at Gondar - and that's why, dear reader, we would like to erect a statue to an Ethiopian mule! Eight Times as Much as a Mule Traders crossing deserts or sandy regions, such as those between Matamma and Sennar, in the west, or Aleyu Amba and the Gulf of Aden coast, in the east, made use, however, of camels. These remarkable animals could carry no less than 350 kilos, or almost eight times as much as a mule, and could be fed on almost anything available, barley, beans or brushwood, and could subsist for a week on a mere litre of water. They also deserve a statue! There were, finally, human porters, many of whom could be recruited in Gondar, Adwa, and the other main towns. The average porter travelled 20 to 30 kilometres a day, and carried about 25 kilos, or about half as much as a mule, for two to three Maria Theresa thalers, over a distance of 400 kilometres. Many merchants also employed their own servants, or slaves, to carry loads, but the latter were usually better treated, for the master, if cynical, would reckon that they were worth 10 to 15 thalers per head, and if one died he would be the loser by that amount. Off at Dawn Caravans usually set forth at sun-rise, or shortly thereafter, and were often so well organised that a party of two or three hundred mules could often be away, Plowden reports, in "less than half-an hour." If water and pasture were available the caravan-leaders would usually call a halt for the day at about noon. To avoid disputes with the local population of the area to be traversed, camping-sites would in many cases be selected in uninhabited areas. In the absence of organised caravanserais, or camping facilities, the traders were obliged to take with them everything they needed, including both provisions and cooking equipment. On arriving at the halting ground they were often weary, but their servants had still not only to grind corn and make bread, but also to construct sleeping quarters for their master. In establishing a camp the merchants' servants would begin by collecting such stones as they could find, and placing them in parallel rows, crossing each other at right-angles to form rectangles about five feet square. On these stones the packs would be piled close together to a height of about six feet. Each owner's goods were kept carefully together. The loads thus arranged constituted a series of small compartments. These were then covered with sticks upon which ox-hides were stretched to form rooms for the protection and comfort of the caravaneers and their livestock. The skins kept out the rain, while the stones protected the merchandise both from damp and white ants, and the packs gave privacy to the inmates. Thorn fences were sometimes also erected, for defence, around the camp as a whole. Children of the Caravan While such work was in progress the children of the caravan would lead the mules to pasture. There they would remain untethered until nightfall, whereupon they would be taken back to the camp, and tied to a row of stakes facing the above-mentioned cells. Guards, who in times of anticipated difficulty might be quite numerous, then lit fires at each end of the camp, and from time to time called out to each other, to cheer themselves, and to keep themselves awake, as well as to convince their masters that they not asleep. If the presence of thieves was at all suspected, the guards also from time hurled slingsful of stones into the dark. Most caravans in this way normally fended entirely for themselves. There were, however, a few villages, notably two near Gondar, whose inhabitants, anxious to attract trade, prepared camping grounds for travelling merchants, and in return claimed the right, according to Ruppell, to sell the traders food for humans and fodder for their livestock Markets, and Other Places of Sale Most markets were held once a week on a specific day, which varied from one village to another. This enabled travelling merchants visiting a succession of fairs daily to trade throughout any area for most of the time. Important centres, among them Gondar, Adwa, and Antalo, on the other hand, though having one or more main market-day, also held a small additional market daily throughout the week. Some of the most common articles for sale at country markets, according to Henry Salt, comprised various types of grain, onions, red pepper and a few other spices; locally grown cotton, skins, cattle; donkeys, mules and horses, and wrought and unwrought iron. The quantity of goods exposed for sale was, however, usually, very modest. At one market attended by 700 people, Ruppell for example saw only a few cattle, sheep, goats and donkeys, two or three large earthenware jars and big dishes, a small quantity of iron, a little cane for weaving baskets, and some goats' hairs for making women's clothing - but almost all these items, he reports, were still left unsold at the end of the day. Meat was not generally on sale. It could be purchased, according to an early nineteenth century British observer, Nathaniel Pearce, only at Gondar, Antalo, and, on feast days, at Adwa. Elsewhere, and at other times, it was the custom for "the lower class of people to join together and buy a cow, which is killed and divided among them". Sale was further limited by the fact that on feast days persons in the service of a chief would usually have livestock slaughtered for them. No Shops Shops in traditional Ethiopia were non-existent, even in the principal commercial centres, though some commerce was in many cases carried out in merchants' dwellings. At Gondar for example "the interior and most secluded recess" of such houses served, according to the German Protestant missionary Henry Stern, somewhat like shops. Only the most "privileged purchaser" would, however, be allowed in, and then only as a favour. Commercial Centres A large part of Ethiopia's trade passed through, or was handled by, such commercial centres as Gondar, Adwa, Aleyu Amba, Hirmata and Harar, as well as many other markets large and small. And it is to them, dearest reader, that we must turn in the next few weeks.