Cyber Ethiopia

We saw last week that Rodolfo Graziani, the Italian Fascist Viceroy of Ethiopia, was confronted with strong opposition in Italy, most noticeably on the part of Alessandro Lessona, the doctrinaire Minister of Italian Africa. Now read on: The Duce's Concern about the Military Situation Disputes and recriminations within the Fascist administration of Ethiopia were intensified for the grim reality of the its failure to crush the Ethiopian Patriot movement. This was a particularly serious matter for Mussolini in view of his ambition to embark on further wars of conquest. (The Fascist invasion of Albania was for example already envisaged).  The Duce's concern at the military state of affairs in Ethiopia in the autumn of 1937 was noted by his son-in-law, Fascist Italy's Foreign Minister Count Galeazzo Ciano.

The latter wrote in his Diary on 13 September that the Mussolini was "annoyed" by the "revolt" in Gojjam, which was "of a considerable size". On 23 September Ciano again referred to the fighting, remarking that Lessona had reported to his master that there were "numerous revolts, but [he hoped] localised." The diarist nonetheless comments that the "rebellion" was "hindering demobilisation" and constituted "a burden on our finance". He feared moreover that "at Maskal", i.e. the feast of the Cross, at the end of the month, "something on a larger scale may break out". Low Morale Morale among the fascist administration in the empire appears at this time to have been low. A British Somaliland Intelligence report for 6 August observed that persons with a knowledge of the area were "pessimistic" about Italy's future, and added, "lack of training among the officials, lack of cohesion between departments, discontent in the forces generally are among the reasons for this pessimism". A Sudanese Military Intelligence Report likewise reported administrative confusion, and declared: "The District Commissioners and Governors, untrained and with no knowledge of the natives, produce nothing but administrative chaos, which, with its consequent lack of protection against the voracious soldiery, is antagonising those native tribes who are friendly... Marshal Graziani, when approached about the persecution of these natives, is reputed to have said that he was doing his best to control the country, but 'what could be achieved when the sweepings of Italy were sent out to him to run the country with?'" Many Italians in the empire were also critical of the administration. On 13 April, Ciro Poggiali recorded in his Diary that Morigi, the Vice-Secretary of the Fascist Party in Addis Ababa, was "exasperated with the delays and incomprehensions" of the "Swiss marine" as the uniformed officials of the 'Civil administration in Italian Africa were nicknamed. Corruption and Disgruntlement There was also much talk of corruption among officials. Poggiali noted on 14 July that the resident at Addis Alam, Captain Corda, was said to have requisitioned an ox for two dollars, but had made the "natives" sign a receipt for twenty. His frauds had, however, been found out and he was accordingly being repatriated. Disgruntlement among the Italian "native troops" was also recorded by Poggiali. He notes that, during General Tracchia's repression, the "native troops" at Dabra Berhan had got drunk, and that "in vino veritas they had shouted that they did not want to fight any more", and that the Italian white soldiers "stay in their forts and send us to be killed". The Italian troops, regarding this as mutiny, opened fire on the "natives", some of whom were wounded. Forty-three "natives" were later sentenced to be shot. Their grave was accordingly dug, and the condemned men were drawn up in a line and marched off to their place of punishment where they were promptly executed. On counting the bodies they were, however, found to number forty-seven. The askari on the way to their execution had apparently passed through the village on market day and in the crowd four unfortunate passers-by or traders had got entrapped with the forty-three, and not been allowed to leave them. "Thus", Poggiali comments, "four innocent men without even understanding what had happened to them were also dragged to the edge of the grave, drawn up, and received the machine-gun shots which sent them into the other world. When the incident was reported to the general he was not too disconcerted: 'one more or less', he would have said, 'there are so many Abyssinians and they are all equally deleterious to us". "Losing Heart" The general atmosphere of disorganisation in this period was also described by Helm of the British Consulate. He telegraphed to the Foreign Office. on 22 November that the Italian administration seemed to be "losing heart," and added: "in recent months interference from Rome has steadily increased especially in the economic field... economic situation has got steadily worse. I am authoritatively informed that it is causing great anxiety. The Italians are being worn down by sheer passive resistance of natives." The British Acting-Consul, Stonehewer-Bird, took a similar view. He declared that "none spoke with any hope of the future, most of the leading officials were being replaced and those who were remaining were applying for leave". Lessona's Continued Intrigues In Rome meanwhile Lessona was relentless in his intrigues to obtain the removal of Graziani whose failure to crush Patriot resistance was arousing increasing disquiet and impatience in Fascist circles. The Minister seems to have been supported by Turati, the former Fascist Party Secretary, who is quoted by Ciano as telling him on 9 October that there was "nothing to be pleased about" concerning the empire. Mussolini's son-in-law, however, was unwilling to support Lessona against Graziani, for he notes, "the Minister is more to blame than the Viceroy. We must have faith and leave the man on the spot [i.e. Graziani] free to act, or else replace him. But not torment him with questions of detail and keep his hands tied". Lessona, of course, had no such qualms. He took advantage of each and every difficulty in the Empire to discredit his enemy. Graziani's "actions in command", he later frankly recalled, "furnished me with convenient reasons," and he adds: "Many times from the day upon which Mussolini announced to me his decision to replace him I argued verbally and in writing the necessity of recalling the Viceroy... finally I repeated in writing the reasons which necessitated the immediate removal of the Viceroy from office, and declared that as Minister I declined all responsibility and preferred to leave my office rather than continue to divide the responsibility for the Empire with Graziani". Graziani: "signs of derangement" - Mussolini Such pressure was beginning to succeed. "Mussolini," Lessona relates, "read my report, and was moved by my arguments". As we were about to enter the Council of Ministers. he said to me that we would have definitely to proceed. He announced in fact a few minutes later, during the verbal report made to the ministers, that Graziani's behaviour showed signs of derangement and that, in the interests of the Empire, it was necessary to replace him." On 15 November he accordingly sent the Viceroy an autograph letter of recall. "Seven months," Lessona comments, "had passed from the day of the attempt in Addis Ababa after which Mussolini had declared to me that the position of Graziani was unsustainable and that it rendered necessary his recall to the Fatherland! It seems a pleasantry but is the pure truth". Lessona Exultant, but... Lessona, though exultant at this victory, was in no real position to rejoice, as his own power was beginning to crumble as had for some time been apparent in fascist circles. Already on 2 November Ciano had noted in his Diary that Balbo was "trying tosave his stooge Lessona". Mussolini, without telling the scheming Minister, had, however, by then decided that Lessona's term of office should not extend beyond that of the Viceroy. Lessona, who appears to have been unaware of his impending fall, states that on learning that the Viceroy was at last to be replaced, he had been very happy, and "wished to show the Duce and the country that if up to now it had not been possible fully to pacify Ethiopia this was exclusively due to Marshal Graziani's open rebellion against the wishes of the responsible Minister". He claims that he hoped moreover that Graziani's departure would open the way for a more fruitful partnership between himself and the new Viceroy; but this was not to be. When he entered the Duce's office, apparently on 19 November, he recalls in his Memoirs that Mussolini "could not hide his embarrassment". Pretending to read a newspaper and talking as if discussing any ordinary piece of business, he informed Lessona that the communique on Graziani's replacement by the Duke of Aosta would be given that day, and added: "Naturally you also must leave the Ministry because, in dealing with a royalprince, it is better that I resume it.". Mussolini, who had by then overcome his earlier embarrassment, then raised his head, and turned "his large eyes on me, wide open, as he did when he wished to be imposing". Ciano, who met the fallen Minister on the same day, notes: "Lessona informed me that the blow has fallen. He was very sad." Mussolini's son-in-law, who of course saw fascist politics from the inside, comments: "They Will Go On Kicking Him After He Is Down" "He asked for it. He has never been frank or friendly to those who have helped him. He has always tried to make trouble. Now he has fallen into his enemies' hands and they will go on kicking him after he is down". These words were prophetic, for early in the following year proceedings against Lessona were initiated, as Ciano later noted. They questioned the validity of a diploma stating that he had participated in Mussolini's march on Rome of 1922. Rumours of Graziani's imminent recall had meanwhile burst within hours of the meeting at which the decision was announced. The Times Rome correspondent reported that there were "good grounds" for stating that the appointment of the Duke of Aosta would be published "in the next few days." Quoting the official Government line he added: "Marshal Graziani's retirement... has become necessary owing to the serious effect on his health during the bomb outrage in Addis Ababa in February last".